Botanical Name: Plantago major, Plantaginaceae

Common names: Plantain, Broad-leaved Plantain, Ripple Grass, Waybread, Weybroed, Waybroad, Snakeweed, Cuckoo's Bread, Englishman's Foot, White Man's Foot.

Similar species: Most of the weedy species in the Plantago genus are used interchangeably with P. major, including P. lanceolata, P. media, P. ovata and P. macrocarpa.

Plant description: Plantain is an annual, biennial or perennial plant with a fibrous root, and a basal rosette, the flowering stalk attaining a height up to 60 cm.  The stalked leaves are ovate, with smooth margins, glabrous, 5-30 cm long and up to 12 cm wide, with 3-7 prominent ribs on the underside. The flower clusters are white and very small, borne on a cylindrical spike, and give way to a small egg-shaped capsule, 2-4 mm long.

Habitat, ecology and distribution: Plantago major is native to Europe, and since first appearing in North America in the mid-1700's, is now widely distributed in temperate, moist locales, along roadsides, in fields and pastures, lawns and gardens.

Part used: Leaf, root, seed.

History: Like other weedy European species such as Dandelion, Plantain appears to have followed the migration of European colonists to almost every part of the world, and in North America it has been called by First Nations peoples as "White Man's Foot." The Anglo-Saxons valued Plantain highly and in an 11th century text on magical charms called the Lacnunga ("Leech-knowing"), "Weybroed" is mentioned as one of nine sacred herbs ("worts"): "And you, Plantain, mother of herbs, opening from eastward, inwardly mighty; over you carts creaked, over you queens rode, over you brides bridalled, over you bulls bellowed.  All these you weathered and withstood; so may you withstand poison and venom, and the enemy who travels over the earth" (Chappell 2003).  Culpepper states that us that the Plantain is "äin the command of Venus and cures the head by antipathy to Mars."

Constituents: Plantago contains a wide variety of glycosides, including flavonoids (baicalin, baicalein, scutellarin apigenin, apigenin-7-glucoside, plantagoside, luteolin, asperuloside, syringin hispidulin, nepetin, plantagonine), iridoids (catalpol, aucubin and acubin derivatives, plantarenaloside), and terpenoids. Plantain also contains small amounts of the sulfur-containing glucoraphenine and sulforaphene.  Other constituents include plant acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, cinnamic, ferulic, fumaric, coumaric, plantagic, planteolic, salicylic, ursolic, and vanillic acid), alkaloids (boschniakine and the methyl ester of boschniakinic acid), allantoin, mucilage, sugars (d-glucose, d-xylose, di-o-methylgalactose, l-fructose, saccharose, sorbitol), sterols, tannins, and potassium salts (Duke 2003; Samuelsen 2000; Newall et al 1996, 210). Agricultural researchers determined that catalpol, aucubin, and acteoside concentrations in the leaves of P. lanceolata were, on average, present in highest concentrations in mid-autumn (Tamura and Nishibe 2002)

Medical Research: There is a limited amount of experimental data on Plantago species, with much of the research focused on the use of the husk (i.e. P. psyllium, Ispaghula), which is beyond the scope of this paper.  In one clinical study, twenty five patients with chronic bronchitis were treated with an extract of P. major. A rapid effect on subjective complaints and objective findings was obtained in 80 per cent of the cases, with good tolerance and no toxic effect on gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidneys, and hemopoiesis (Matev et al 1982).  The following is a selection of in vitro and in vivo experimental research:
•Wound-healing: In vitro and in vivo studies examined the mechanisms involved in the wound-healing properties of the mucopolysaccharides derived from psyllium husk, assessing fluid absorption, bacterial adherence and in vitro stimulatory effects on macrophages.  Researchers found that the mucopolysaccharides showed an optimal profile and supported its clinical use in wound healing (Westerhof et al 2001).
•Immune: Researchers determined that a methanol extract from the leaves of P. major were associated with an increases in nitric oxide and TNF-alpha production by rat peritoneal macrophages, and potentiated Con A-induced lymphoproliferation in a dose-dependent fashion (Gomez-Flores et al 2000).
•Antiviral: Researchers examined the antiviral activity of an aqueous extract and purified constituents of P. major on herpesviruses (HSV-1, HSV-2) and adenoviruses (ADV-3, ADV-8, ADV-11). Results indicated that an aqueous extract of P. major possessed only a slight anti-herpes virus activity, whereas caffeic acid exhibited a much stronger activity against HSV-1, with chlorogenic acid active against ADV-11 (Chiang et al 2002). An orally-administered aqueous extract of Plantago ovata, consisting of a mixture of polysaccharides and glycosides, on the humoral immune responses in rabbits, was shown to promote a significant decrease in anti-HD antibody titre (hepatitis D antibody), as well as a significant increase in white blood cells (WBC) and spleen leukocytes counts (Rezaeipoor et al 2000).
•Antibacterial: The antibacterial effect of a soluble pectin polysaccharide (PMII) isolated from the leaves of Plantago major was examined in mice infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae. The data obtained indicates that PMII protects against pneumococcal infection in mice when administered systemically as a prechallenge, and its protective effects is due to the stimulation of non-specific mechanisms of defense and not immunity (Hetland et al 2000).
•Antiinflammatory: Acteoside and plantamajoside isolated from Plantago lanceolata showed inhibitory effects on arachidonic acid-induced mouse ear edema (Murai et al 1995).

Toxicity: Plantain husk is approved for use in bulk-laxative preparations, and as such, the whole plant is generally regarded as non-toxic.  Newall et al report an oral LD50 of 4g/kg in experimental animals. Moore warns that the immature leaves of the toxic Green Hellebore (Veratrum viridis) resemble Plantain (1979, 129).

Herbal action: vulnerary, antiinflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, mild antimicrobial, immunomodulant, antiulcerogenic, diuretic

Indications: wounds, insect bites, skin irritation and mild infections, diaper rash, gastric and duodenal ulcers, diarrhea and dysentery, hemorrhoids (topically and internally), bronchitis, asthma, dental caries, earache, enuresis (in children), constipation (seeds)

Contraindications and cautions: Some sensitive individuals may exhibit an IgE-mediated allergic response (Newall et al 1996, 211).

Medicinal uses: As the Lacnunga suggests, Plantain is an oft forgotten herb, trod over and ignored, perhaps too ubiquitous to be of much note to most people.  Nonetheless, herbalists value Plantain as an important remedy, especially in first≠aid, in which it is picked fresh, masticated and placed on top of small wounds and insect bites and covered with a whole leaf as a bandage.  Used in this way, Plantain often affords immediate pain relief and helps to stop bleeding, and within a half hour of application, leaves a well-healing injury.  Wood mentions Plantain as a "drawing-agent," used to draw splinters, dirt, pus and infection from wounds, and infers this property from Plantain's ability to draw nutrients from hard, compacted soils (1997, 390).  Similarly, Plantain is mentioned in King's as an analgesic in toothaches (Felter and Lloyd 1893), Wood suggesting that Plantain's drawing power works equally well in infections of mouth, teeth and gums (1997, 392).  Moore mentions the usage of the fresh leaf internally in gastrointestinal inflammation, as in stomach ulcers, dysentery or hemorrhoids, and is equally helpful in cystitis (1979, 129).  Plantain has long been regarded as an important vulnerary in irritation and inflammation of the respiratory tract, drunk as an infusion of the dried leaves.  The seeds are mixed with water and drunk as a hydrophilic bulk laxative in atonic constipation.  King's mentions Plantain in enuresis in children, "…due to [a] relaxed vesical sphincter, with profuse colorless discharge of urine" (Felter and Lloyd 1893). King's also states that "…the best forms of administration are the juice dissolved in diluted alcohol, and evaporated by gentle heat to the consistence of an extract…the dose of which is from 1 to 5 drops" (Felter and Lloyd 1893).

Pharmacy and dosage:.
•Fresh Plant Tincture: fresh leaf and root, 1:2, 95% alcohol, 3-20 gtt,
•Dry Plant Tincture: recently dried leaf and root, 1:5, 25% alcohol, 40-60 gtt, 1-5 mL
•Succus:fresh juice combined with an equal volume of 95% alcohol, reduced by low heat to half the total volume, 5-30 gtt.
•Hot Infusion: recently dried plant, 1:20, 60-120 mL
•Fresh juice: 10-25 mL
•Medicated oil: recently dried plant, powdered, 1:7, apply ad libitum

REFERENCES

Chappell, Gavin. trans. 2003. The Nine Worts Galdor or Nine Herbs Charm. Available from: http://www.ealdriht.org/charm2.html
Chiang LC, Chiang W, Chang MY, Ng LT, Lin CC. 2002. Antiviral activity of Plantago major extracts and related compounds in vitro. Antiviral Res. Jul;55(1):53-62
Duke, James. 2003. Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. Agricultural Research Services. Available from http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/
Felter, HW and JU Lloyd. 1893. King's American Dispensatory. Digitized version available from http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/kings/main.html.
Grieve, Maude. 1971. A Modern Herbal. New York: Dover Publications.
Gomez-Flores R, Calderon CL, Scheibel LW, Tamez-Guerra P, Rodriguez-Padilla C, Tamez-Guerra R, Weber RJ. 2000. Immunoenhancing properties of Plantago major leaf extract. Phytother Res Dec;14(8):617-22
Hetland G, Samuelsen AB, Lovik M, Paulsen BS, Aaberge IS, Groeng EC, Michaelsen TE. 2000. Protective effect of Plantago major L. Pectin polysaccharide against systemic Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in mice. Scand J Immunol. Oct;52(4):348-55
Matev M, Angelova I, Koichev A, Leseva M, Stefanov G. 1982. Clinical trial of a Plantago major preparation in the treatment of chronic bronchitis. Vutr Boles. 21(2):133-7
Moore, Michael.  1979. Medicinal Plants of the Mountain West. Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press
Murai M, Tamayama Y, Nishibe S. 1995. Phenylethanoids in the herb of Plantago lanceolata and inhibitory effect on arachidonic acid-induced mouse ear edema. Planta Med. Oct;61(5):479-80
Newall, Carol A., Linda A. Anderson and J.D. Phillipson. 1996. Herbal Medicines: A Guide for Health-Care Professionals. London: The Pharmaceutical Press.
Rezaeipoor R, Saeidnia S, Kamalinejad M. 2000. The effect of Plantago ovata on humoral immune responses in experimental animals. J Ethnopharmacol. Sep;72(1-2):283-6
Samuelsen AB . 2000. The traditional uses, chemical constituents and biological activities of Plantago major L. A review. J Ethnopharmacol. Jul;71(1-2):1-21
Tamura Y, Nishibe S. 2002. Changes in the concentrations of bioactive compounds in plantain leaves. J Agric Food Chem. Apr 24;50(9):2514-8
Westerhof W, Das PK, Middelkoop E, Verschoor J, Storey L, Regnier C. 2001. Mucopolysaccharides from psyllium involved in wound healing. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 27(5-6):165-75
Wood, Matthew. 1997. The Book of Herbal Wisdom. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books.